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7）It is well established that certain autonomic responses such as heart rate, perspiration, and respiration change under stress. In view of the fact that people generally have stronger autonomic responses when lying than when telling the truth, it follows that the polygraph would be a foolproof approach to lie detection. Which statement best explains why the polygraph is not more widely used in courtrooms and in testing of job applicants?

1. Most people can avoid detection when they lie.
2. Physiological arousal is much the same for several emotions, so the polygraph cannot always reliably distinguish guilt from other reactions.
3. A significant number of people show paradoxical autonomic reactions, responding more strongly when telling the truth than when lying.
4. In controlled studies, the polygraph has correctly identified guilty individuals in only a small percentage of cases.
5. The polygraph has been shown to be reliable only in highly emotional cases, such as child abuse and spying.

28）Which of the following statements best describes the role of biological processes in classical conditioning?

1. A biologically-based unconditioned stimulus (UCS) must immediately follow a conditioned stimulus (CS) for learning to occur.
2. Any novel or familiar stimulus could serve as a CS because the biological mechanisms underlying learning are very powerful.
3. Because all animals share a common cellular history, the laws of classical conditioning apply to all species.
4. Certain species are biologically predisposed to learn particular associations that enhance their survival.
5. Biological reinforcers foster learning more quickly than do environmental reinforcers.

46）Carol Gilligan, in her criticism of Lawrence Kohlberg, proposed that the moral reasoning of males is primarily based on

1. male repression of females, whereas the moral reasoning of females is based on economics
2. rational abstract principles, whereas the moral reasoning of females is based on relationships and the social context
3. legalistic ideals, whereas the moral reasoning of females is based on more humanistic ideals
4. observational learning, whereas the moral reasoning of females is genetically determined for the most part
5. physical strength, whereas males start developing morally later than females but surpass them soon afterward