• A?nucleophile?is an electron-rich species that can?donate?a pair of electrons
  • ‘Nucleophile’ means ‘nucleus / positive charge loving’ as nucleophiles are attracted to positively charged species
  • Nucleophilic?refers to reactions that involve a nucleophile

Formation of alcohols

• The nucleophile in this reaction is the?hydroxide ion,?OH-
• An?aqueous?solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH) with?ethanol?is used to form an alcohol
• This reaction is very slow at room temperature, so the reaction mixture is warmed
• This is an example of a?hydrolysis reaction?and the product is an alcohol
  • The rate of this reaction depends on the type of halogen in the halogenoalkane
  • The stronger the C-X bond, the slower the rate of the reaction
  • In terms of bond enthalpy, C-F > C-Cl > C-Br > C-I
  • Fluoroalkanes do not react at all, but iodoalkanes have a very fast rate of reaction

   

The halogen is replaced by the nucleophile, OH-

• This reaction could also be done with water as the nucleophile, but it is very slow
  • The hydroxide ion is a better nucleophile than water as it carries a full negative charge
  • In water, the oxygen atom only carries a partial charge

   

A hydroxide ion is a better nucleophile as it has a full formal negative charge whereas the oxygen atom in water only carries a partial negative charge; this causes the nucleophilic substitution reaction with water to be much slower than the aqueous alkali

Reaction with water?

• The water molecule is a weak nucleophile, but it will eventually substitute for the halogen
• This occurs much more slowly compared to when warm aqueous sodium hydroxide is used
• An alcohol is produced
  • RX + H2O → ROH + H+?+ X-
  • CH3CH2Br +?H2O → CH3CH2OH + H+?+ Br-
• If silver nitrate solution in ethanol is added to the solution, the silver ions will react with the halide ions as soon as they form, giving a silver halide precipitate
  • Ag+?(aq) + X-?(aq) → AgX (s)

Formation of nitriles

• The nucleophile in this reaction is the?cyanide ion, CN-
• An?ethanolic solution?of?potassium?cyanide?(KCN in ethanol) is?heated?under?reflux?with the halogenoalkane
• The product is a?nitrile
  • E.g. bromoethane is heated under reflux with ethanolic potassium cyanide to form propanenitrile

   

The halogen is replaced by a cyanide group, CN?-

• The nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes with KCN adds an?extends the carbon chain?by adding an extra carbon atom
• This reaction can therefore be used by chemists to make a compound with one more carbon atom than the best available organic starting material

Formation of primary amines by reaction with ammonia

• The nucleophile in this reaction is the ammonia molecule, NH3
• An?ethanolic?solution?of?excess?ammonia (NH3?in ethanol) is?heated?under pressure?with a?primary?halogenoalkane
  • An excess of ammonia is used because the product is more reactive than ammonia so further substitution reactions could occur
• The product is a?primary amine
  • E.g. bromoethane reacts with excess ethanolic ammonia when heated under pressure to form ethylamine

   

The halogen is replaced by an amine group,?NH2

Formation of alkenes?

• The halogenoalkanes are?heated?with?ethanolic sodium hydroxide?causing the C-X bond to break?heterolytically,?forming an X-?ion and leaving an alkene as an organic product
  • E.g. bromoethane is heated with?ethanolic sodium hydroxide?to form ethene

Production of an alkene from a halogenoalkane by reacting it with ethanolic sodium hydroxide and heating it

Hydrogen bromide is eliminated to form ethene