• Halogenoalkanes?are much more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the?electronegative?halogens
  • The halogen-carbon bond is polar causing the carbon to carry a partial positive and the halogen a partial negative charge
• A?nucleophilic substitution?reaction is one in which a?nucleophile?attacks a carbon atom which carries a?partial?positive?charge
• An atom that has a?partial?negative?charge?is replaced by the nucleophile

Due to large differences in electronegativity between the carbon and halogen atom, the C-X bond is polar

Reaction with NaOH

• The reaction of a halogenoalkane with?aqueous alkali?results in the formation of an alcohol
• The halogen is?replaced?by the OH^-
• The?aqueous?hydroxide?(OH^- ion) behaves as a?nucleophile?by donating a pair of electrons to the carbon atom bonded to the halogen
• Hence, this reaction is a?nucleophilic substitution
  • For example, bromoethane reacts with aqueous alkali when heated to form ethanol

The halogen is replaced by a nucleophile, OH^-

Reaction with KCN

• The?nucleophile?in this reaction is the?cyanide, CN^- ion
• Ethanolic?solution?of?potassium?cyanide?(KCN in ethanol) is?heated?under?reflux?with the halogenoalkane
• The product is a?nitrile
  • For example, bromoethane reacts with ethanolic potassium cyanide when heated under reflux to form propanenitrile

The halogen is replaced by a cyanide group, ?CN^-

• The nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes with KCN adds an?extra?carbon atom to the carbon chain
• This reaction can therefore be used by chemists to make a compound with one more carbon atom than the best available organic starting material

Reaction with NH3

• The?nucleophile?in this reaction is the?ammonia, NH₃ molecule
• An?ethanolic?solution?of?excess ammonia?(NH₃ in ethanol) is?heated?under pressure?with the halogenoalkane
• The product is a?primary amine
  • For example, bromoethane reacts with excess ethanolic ammonia when heated under pressure to form ethylamine

The halogen is replaced by an amine group, ?NH₃

• It is very important that the ammonia is in excess as the product of the nucleophilic substitution reaction, the?ethylamine, can act as a nucleophile and attack another bromoethane to form the?secondary amine,?diethylamine

Reaction with aqueous silver nitrate

• Halogenoalkanes can be broken down?under reflux?by water to form?alcohols
  • The breakdown of a substance by water is also called?hydrolysis
• This reaction is classified as a nucleophilic substitution reaction with?water molecules?in aqueous?silver nitrate?solution acting as nucleophiles,?replacing?the halogen in the halogenoalkane
  • For example, bromoethane reacts with aqueous silver nitrate solution to form ethanol

The halogen is replaced by a hydroxyl group, OH^-

• This reaction is similar to the nucleophilic substitution reaction of halogenoalkanes with aqueous alkali, however, hydrolysis with water is much?slower?than with the?OH-?ion in alkalis
  • The hydroxide ion is a better nucleophile than water as it carries a full formal negative charge
  • In water, the oxygen atom only carries a partial negative charge

A hydroxide ion is a better nucleophile as it has a full formal negative charge whereas the oxygen atom in water only carries a partial negative charge; this causes the nucleophilic substitution reaction with water to be much slower than with aqueous alkali

• The halogenoalkanes have different rates of hydrolysis, so this reaction can be used as a test to identify halogens in a halogenoalkane by measuring how long it takes for the test tubes containing the halogenoalkane and aqueous silver nitrate solutions to become opaque