Zinc-carbon cells

• Zinc-carbon cells are the most common type of?primary cells, consisting of
  • a zinc casing which acts as the?negative electrode
  • a paste of ammonium chloride which acts as an?electrolyte?as well as the?positive electrode
  • a carbon rod which acts as an?electron carrier in the cell

The zinc-carbon cell

• These cells are the commonly found AA and AAA and other similar battery types
• As the cell discharges, the zinc casing eventually wears away and the corrosive contents of the electrolyte paste can?leak out, which is an obvious?disadvantage?of zinc-carbon cells
• The cell provides a?small current?and is relatively?cheap?compared to other cells
• Extra-long?life cells?have similar chemistry, but supply a?higher current?and use?zinc chloride?in the paste; they are suitable for torches, radios, and clocks
• Another variation on the cell uses an?alkaline paste?in the electrolyte and they have a much?longer?operating?life?but are noticeably?more expensive?than regular zinc-carbon cells

Secondary Cells

Lead-acid batteries

• Lead-acid batteries consist of?six cells?joined together?in series
• The cells use?lead?metal as the?negative electrode?and?lead(IV) oxide?as the?positive electrode
• The electrolyte is sulfuric acid

A lead-acid battery

• When the car is in motion, the generator provides a push of electrons that reverses the reaction and regenerates lead and lead(IV) oxide
• Lead-acid batteries are designed to produce a?high current?for a short period of time, hence their use in powering a starter motor in car engines
• The disadvantage of lead-acid batteries is that:
  • They are very?heavy
  • They contain?toxic?materials: lead and lead(IV) oxide
  • The sulfuric acid electrolyte is very?corrosive

• This presents challenges of disposal when lead-acid batteries come to the end of their useful life

Lithium Cells

• Lithium ion cells power the laptop or mobile device you are probably reading this on
• The Noble Prize for Chemistry in 2019 was awarded to John B. Goodenough, M. Stanley Whittingham and Akira Yoshino for their work on lithium ion cells that have?revolutionized?portable electronics
• Lithium is used because it has a very?low density?and relatively?high electrode potential
• The cell consists of:
  • a positive lithium cobalt oxide electrode
  • a negative carbon electrode
  • a porous polymer membrane electrolyte

• The polymer electrolyte cannot leak since it is not a liquid or paste, which presents advantages over other types of cells

Lithium ion cell

• The cell consists of a sandwich of different layers of?lithium cobalt oxide?and?carbon
• When the cell is charged and discharged the lithium ions flow between the negative and the positive through the solid electrolyte
• The half-cell reactions on discharge are:

Li (s) →? ?Li^+?(s)? +? e^{–? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ??}E?= -3 V?

Li⁺?(s)? + CoO₂?(s)? +??e^–?→? ?Li?^+?(CoO₂)?^–?(s)? ?? ? ? ? ? ? ?E?= +1 V

• The cell generates an emf of between 3.5 V and 4.0 V and the overall reaction is

? ? ? ? ?Li (s) ?+ CoO₂?(s) ?→ ? Li?^+?(CoO₂)?^–?(s)? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?E_cell?~ +3.5

• NiCad cells have a?problem?called the?memory effect?in which they gradually begin to?lose their charge after repeated charge cycles?when the cell is not fully discharged. The cells appear to 'remember' their lower state of charge
• Lithium-ion cells?do not have this problem?so can be topped up without any loss of charge
• Some of the problems with lithium ion cells:
  • A?global shortage of lithium?is likely to make lithium ion cells unsustainable as the current demand for lithium exceeds the supply
  • If cells are not recycled but thrown away in landfills, then a huge amount of lithium becomes?lost?to future generations
  • Reports of lithium ion cell fires have raised concern about the safety of these batteries in electronic devices; it is a reminder to us that?lithium?is a?very reactive element?in Group 1 of the periodic table, which is why it has a high electrode potential